The Arabic & Islamic Inscriptions: Examples Of Arabic Epigraphy
Epigraphy is a study of inscriptions, i.e., text traced upon some hard substance for the sake of durability, as on a monument, building, stone, metal, coin, ceramic, textile, etc.
Max van Berchem (1863-1921) was the first to recognize the importance of Arabic inscriptions for a more precise reconstruction of early and medieval Islamic history. He can be rightly called as the founding scholar of Arabic epigraphy. In the course of his travels, Max van Berchem collected an impressive number of Arabic inscriptions from all over the Islamic world. His main published works are Corpus Inscriptionum Arabicarum, principally volumes devoted to Cairo and Jerusalem, the Voyage en Syrie and articles collected in the two volumes of his Opera Minora. Adolf Grohmann's Arabische Paläographie II: Das Schriftwesen. Die Lapidarschrift remains an indispensible reference for studying the evolution of Arabic paleography from pre-Islamic era until after the advent of Islam.
Here we will deal with examples of pre-Islamic Arabic and Islamic inscriptions from first century of hijra as well as those containing the Qur'anic verses from this time.
Looking for something similar? Try
The Qur'anic Manuscripts | The Arabic Papyri
1. Pre-Islamic Arabic Inscriptions
The Arabic script originated from the Nabataean script. T. Nöldeke was the first to establish the link between the Nabataean and Arabic scripts in 1865, which later confirmed against J. Starcky's Syriac thesis by Grohmann. The affiliation between Nabataean and Arabic scripts has now been fully documented by J. Healey. Following are some of the inscriptions showing the evolution of the Arabic script from the Nabataean script.
A First Century BC Arabic Inscription In Musnad Script At Qaryat Al-Faw. Although the inscription is in the classical Arabic (or the "old" Arabic), it was written in the Musnad script. This is the earliest known Arabic inscription written in the Musnad script.
Healey and Smith have hailed it as the earliest dated Arabic document. The salient point of this inscription is that it has diacritical points on the letters د، ش and ر.
This inscription is unique is several respects. It is the earliest inscription so far discovered in the classical Arabic language. Also it is the one of the two Arabic inscriptions written in Nabataean alphabet. This inscription is the only contemporary evidence we have in Arabic about the life of King Imru'l Qais. This inscription, therefore, is of great interest both to the historians as well as philologians.
This inscription is the second oldest so far discovered in Arabic alphabet after the Raqush inscription. The salient point of this inscription is that it has diacritical points for the letters ج، ي and ن. The grammar in this inscription is straightforward classical Arabic. The language in this inscription is closer to modern Arabic than the language of Shakespeare is to modern English.
The discovery of these two inscriptions is of considerable importance in confirming suggestions of the evolution of the Arabic writing inside the Arabian peninsula rather than outside its borders.
The grammar in this inscription is straightforward classical Arabic. The language in this inscription is closer to modern Arabic than the language of Shakespeare is to modern English.
As the name suggests, it is a trilingual inscription. The Arabic, though, does not translate the Greek but merely listing six names, not all of which are mentioned in Greek.
This is the only pre-Islamic Arabic inscription with historical content.
A Greek-Arabic bilingual inscription from Harran, near Damascus, Syria.
A inscription contains a curious mixture of Arabic and Nabataean characters showing the dots associated with Arabic letters ب، ت، and ن.
2. Dated Inscriptions From First Century Of Hijra
These set of inscriptions from near Madinah, although written in a striking Kufic script, bear no date. They have been dated c. 4 AH using the internal evidence. These set of inscriptions are also the earliest to mention the names of Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, ‘Ali and Muhammad Ibn ‘Abdullah, etc.
An inscription from Batman Su (or Nymphæus), Turkey. Although this inscription had generated a lot of discussion but it failed to provide a sustained interested due to lack of a photograph.
This is the earliest dated Kufic inscription with a photograph. It was written by Zuhayr "at the time of ‘Umar's death" in 24 AH, thus mentioning the name of the second Caliph. This inscription, it appears, is destined to be the most famous of all the Arabic inscriptions as the UNESCO has added it to the Memory of the World Register of Documentary Collections.
Dated to Ramadan, 29 AH / May, 650 CE. No photograph was provided for this inscription, although the content was given.
This is perhaps the most celebrated inscription, quoted often in the references dealing with Arabic inscriptions and palaeography.
This inscription was found on the Darb Zubayda caravan route at Wadi 'l-Shamiya during an archaeological survey in 1970s.
This graffito was found in Wadi Sabil during the Philby-Ryckmans-Lippens expedition. The inscription shows a dot below ب. This is the third earliest dated inscription.
This inscription was found on the Darb Zubayda caravan route at al-Khashna during an archaeological survey in 1970s.
It is interesting to note that this inscription shows the use of consonantal points for ي, ب، ن، ث، خ، ف and ت.
This inscription mentions the name of the three well-known angels in Islam, viz., Gabriel, Michael and Israfil whose Lord is Allah.
A band of inscriptions usually on textiles is called the tiraz. The silk with the tiraz inscription in the name of Marwan, one of the Umayyad caliphs, exists in three pieces, all found in Egypt, is dated to the time of Marwan ibn al-Hakam. This dating makes it the earliest known Islamic textile.
A bronze can with an inscription placed around the rim, perhaps originating from Basra during the Umayyad period.
An interesting inscription that mentions the name of Prophet Muhammad along with the phrase "ahl al-Islām". It also mentions the shahadah. Interestingly, Crone and Cook (Hagarism: The Making Of The Islamic World, 1977, Cambridge University Press) chose to ignore this inscription only to conclude that the word "Islam" was used only in the eighth century CE!
The inscriptions on the Dome of the Rock can be rightly called as the "big-daddy" of all the first century Islamic inscriptions. Built by the Umayyad Caliph ‘Abd al-Malik, these inscriptions have copious amount of Qur'anic verses.
The Arabic inscriptions in copper plaques at the eastern entrance and the northern portal of the Dome of the Rock are not as well known as the ones inscribed inside the Dome of the Rock. Inscribed by the Umayyad Caliph ‘Abd al-Malik, these inscriptions have five Qur'anic verses quoted partially.
This is the oldest inscription in Islam relating to the inaugral of a road and it is also the second longest and almost the fullest inscription from the time of ‘Abd al-Malik after that of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. This inscription furnishes clear evidence that ‘Abd al-Malik did not satisfy himself with repairing the old roads and maintaining them in a fit state of traffic, but that he also thought of, and at least in this instance executed enterprises on a large scale.
This building inscription in Qasr Burqu‘‘ was built by al-Walid before his ascension to the throne (705-715 CE).
It contains a mixture of verses 4:1, 2:21 and 2:189.
An interesting woven inscription from Egypt and it is the second earliest dated Islamic textile after the tiraz inscription. The inscription was done on a turban for Samuel b. Musa, perhaps a Jew or a Christian, in the year 88 AH.
This inscription, a pious and moving invocation, is full of Qur'anic flavour.
This earthen bowl was manufactured for Prince Sulayman b. ‘Abd al-Malik before his ascension to the throne 96-98 AH / 715-717 CE.
It quotes part of 65:3 as it is and the rest of the verse is slightly modified without changing the meaning.
This inscription was discovered in 1886 at the archaeological site of Khirbat Nitil. The eight lines are located in an inner vaulted room in the western wall. The inscription shows a dot below for غ. The inscription mentions hawd Muhammad, i.e., the pool of Prophet Muhammad in Paradise, from which the believers will drink. This pool is mentioned in many hadiths.
3. Undated Inscriptions From First Century Of Hijra
This milestone was found in a ruin north of the watchtower at Bāb al-Wād on the road from Jerusalem to al-Ramla. It has diacritical strokes for ث، ن and ي, as seen in the last line.
This milestone was found near the church of Abū Ghōsh. It is made up of limestone and shows five line, with probably three or four lines missing at the top and the upper right corner.
This milestone is from Khān al-Hathrūra, Palestine, on the road between Jerusalem and Damascus. The marble slab contains seven lines engraved in bas-relief. The first two lines are broken off.
Marble milestone found at the cloister of Khozaiba near Deir al-Qalt on the Jerusalem-Damascus road, 107 miles from Jerusalem. It has six remaining lines, as the top and the right hand side have broken off.
This graffito was found in Sadd al-‘Arda, about 10 kms south-east of Ta'if, during the Philby-Ryckmans-Lippens expedition.
An interesting inscription containing the Qur'anic verse 33:56.
4. Inscriptions From Second Century Of Hijra
An interesting inscription that mentions supplication for the acceptance of prayer and fasting during the month of Ramadhan.
5. Inscriptions Containing The Qur'an
The primary source upon which the early Arabic inscriptions draw is, without doubt, the Qur'an. Occasionally an inscription may be composed of nothing more than a Qur'anic citation. Sometimes a Qur'anic verse may be quoted in full within the text of an inscription. More common still, an inscription will be an eclectic blend of words and phrases taken from different verses of the Qur'an, often slightly modified and / or supplemented as required; a technique that is also quite often used in khutbahs and Islamic lectures. Even those inscriptions that do not explicitly cite or paraphrase the Qur'an will mostly be comprised of words and concepts familiar from the Qur'an.
Below are some of the examples of early inscriptions from 1st and 2nd century of hijra that quote from the Qur'an.
6. Islamic Inscriptions: Content & Context
This article discusses the Umayyad inscriptions on Dome of the Rock among others to show that the Qur'an was already codified before the construction of Dome of the Rock.
This article discusses the content and context of the inscriptions from various parts of Islamic world and reaches a conclusion opposite to that of narrowly focused work of Nevo and others.
Yehuda Nevo in his work on Negev inscriptions has simply used Wansbrough's "conjectural," "provisional" and "tentative and emphatically provisional" hypothesis without substantiating them with evidence, as his conclusions to "show" that Islam originated from a Judeo-Christian sectarian environment. In other words, Nevo's argument is circular.
An interesting and devastating critique by Colin Wells of Nevo and Koren's work that calls for radical revisionism of Islamic history.
A witty insight into the methodlogies of the revisionists. Revisionism rests on several peculiar assumptions and these assumptions the author highlights in a very lucid way.
© Islamic Awareness, All Rights Reserved.
